MPC-001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory CHAPTERWISE Notes For IGNOU Exams
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| MPC-001 Cognitive Psychology, Learning and Memory CHAPTERWISE Notes For IGNOU Exams |
CHAPTER 1: Information Processing
1.1 Cognitive Psychology
·
Definition: Study of mental processes (e.g., perception, memory, reasoning) and
their role in behavior.
·
Historical Context:
o
Emerged in the 1960s as a reaction against behaviorism.
o
Key figures: Ulric Neisser ("Cognitive Psychology," 1967),
George Miller (working memory capacity: 7±2 chunks).
·
Core Principles:
o
Mind as an information processor.
o
Use of experimental methods (e.g., reaction time studies, neuroimaging).
1.2 Information Processing in Learning and Memory
·
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (1968):
o
Sensory Memory: Brief storage (milliseconds to seconds); Sperling’s iconic memory
experiments.
o
Short-Term Memory (STM): Limited capacity (7±2 items); rehearsal maintains information.
o
Long-Term Memory (LTM): Unlimited storage; declarative (facts/events) vs. procedural (skills).
·
Levels of Processing Theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972):
o
Depth of processing (shallow vs. semantic) determines memory retention.
·
Working Memory Model (Baddeley & Hitch, 1974):
o
Components: Central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial
sketchpad, episodic buffer.
1.3 Neuropsychological Basis of Learning and Memory
In 1953 at a medical conference, the
neurosurgeon William Beecher Scoville from the Montreal Neurological Institute
reported on bilateral removal of the medial temporal lobe in one epileptic
patient and several schizophrenic patients.
·
Key Brain Structures:
o
Hippocampus: Critical for LTM formation; case studies (H.M. and Clive Wearing).
o
Amygdala: Emotional memory
modulation.
o
Prefrontal Cortex: Working memory and executive functions.
·
Neuroplasticity: Synaptic strengthening (Hebbian theory: "cells that fire
together, wire together").
·
MEMORY
Memories are solidified
in long-term stores over days, weeks, months, and years. This process is
referred to as consolidation, an old concept that refers to how long term
memory develops over time after initial acquisition. From a cognitive
neuroscience perspective, consolidation is conceived of as biological changes
that underlie the long-term retention of learned information, and we can ask
what brain structures and systems support this process.
1.4 Models of Information Processing
·
Connectionist Models: Neural networks simulating learning via weighted connections.
·
Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP): Simultaneous processing across networks.
·
ACT-R Model (Anderson, 1983): Integrates declarative and procedural knowledge.
CHAPTER 2: Intelligence and
Creativity
2.1 Theories of Intelligence
·
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory (1904):
o
g factor (general
intelligence) and s factors (specific abilities).
·
JP Das’s PASS Model (1975):
o
Planning, Attention, Simultaneous,
and Successive processing.
·
Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities (1938): Seven factors (e.g., verbal comprehension,
spatial visualization).
2.2 Multiple Theories of Intelligence
·
Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (1967):
o
180 intellectual abilities (operations x contents x products).
·
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences (1983):
o
Eight types (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical).
·
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory (1985):
o
Analytical, Creative, and Practical intelligence.
2.3 Measurement of Intelligence
·
Stanford-Binet (1916): IQ formula (mental age/chronological age x 100).
·
Wechsler Scales (WAIS, WISC): Deviation IQ (mean=100, SD=15).
·
Raven’s Progressive Matrices: Non-verbal fluid intelligence test.
2.4 Creativity and Problem Solving
·
Creativity Stages (Wallas, 1926):
o
Preparation, Incubation, Illumination, Verification.
·
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (1966): Assess fluency, flexibility, originality.
·
Problem Solving:
o
Algorithms (step-by-step) vs. Heuristics (mental shortcuts,
e.g., means-end analysis).
o
Impediments: Functional fixedness, confirmation bias.
CHAPTER 3: Language
3.1 Language Acquisition
·
Nativist Theory (Chomsky, 1959):
o
Language Acquisition Device (LAD); universal grammar.
o
Critical period hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967).
·
Interactionist Theory: Social interaction (Vygotsky) and cognitive development (Piaget).
3.2 Language Processing
·
Comprehension:
o
Parsing (syntactic analysis); Garden-Path Model (Frazier,
1987).
o
Semantic integration (e.g., N400 ERP component).
·
Production:
o
Dell’s Model (1986): Interactive activation of semantic, syntactic, phonological nodes.
o
Speech errors (e.g., spoonerisms: "shoving leopard" →
"loving shepherd").
3.3 Multilingualism and Cognition
·
Cognitive Benefits: Enhanced executive control (Bialystok, 2001), delayed dementia onset.
·
Code-Switching: Context-dependent language use (Myers-Scotton, 1993).
3.4 Language and Speech Disorders
·
Aphasia:
o
Broca’s (non-fluent
speech) vs. Wernicke’s (fluent but nonsensical).
·
Dyslexia: Phonological
processing deficits.
·
Stuttering: Disruptions in speech fluency; neurogenic or developmental causes.
CHAPTER 4: Problem Solving
4.1 Nature of Problem Solving
·
Well-Defined Problems (e.g., math equations) vs. Ill-Defined Problems (e.g.,
climate change).
4.2 Stages of Problem Solving (Newell & Simon,
1972)
1.
Problem Identification
2.
Definition (goal state, operators).
3.
Strategy Formulation (algorithmic vs. heuristic).
4.
Organization/Resource Allocation.
5.
Monitoring and Evaluation.
4.3 Theoretical Approaches
·
Gestalt Psychology (Köhler, 1925): Insight learning ("Aha!" moments;
chimpanzee experiments).
·
Information Processing: Search strategies (e.g., means-end analysis in Tower of Hanoi).
·
Analogical Reasoning: Using past solutions (e.g., Rutherford’s solar system atom model).
4.4 Impediments to Problem Solving
·
Mental Set: Rigid thinking (e.g., Luchins’ water jar experiment).
·
Functional Fixedness (Duncker, 1945): Inability to see novel uses (e.g., candle
problem).
·
Heuristics:
o
Availability (judging based on ease of recall).
o
Representativeness (stereotyping).
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
Cognitive Psychology & Research
Methods
1. Describe
the major historical schools of psychological thought leading up to the
development of cognitive psychology.
2. Analyse
how various research methods in cognitive psychology reflect empirist and
rationalist approaches to gaining knowledge.
3. Design
a rough sketch of a cognitive-psychological investigation involving one of the
research methods described in this chapter. Highlight both the advantages and
disadvantages of using this particular method for your investigation.
4. Describe
Cognitive Psychology as it is today. How might you speculate that the field
will change in the next 50 years?
5. How
might an insight gained from basic research lead to practical use in an
everyday setting?
6. Describe
some real life situations related to different domains of cognitive psychology.
Memory and Information Processing
7. Describe
two characteristics each of sensory memory, short term memory, and long term
memory.
8. Discuss
the information processing approaches of learning and memory.
9. How
would you design a study program to process the information so that it can be
retained in long term memory?
10.Describe
the development of memory with reference to information processing.
11.How
would your life be different if you could greatly enhance your memory skills?
12.What
are the basic principles of information processing?
13.What
are the three things you have learned about memory that can help you learn new
information so that you can effectively recall the information over the long-term?
Neuropsychology of Memory
14.Summarize
the findings of neuropsychological research on localising memory in the brain.
15.Compare
and contrast the human and animal models of the study of neural basis of
memory.
16.What
exactly do findings from memory studies with amnesic patients tell us about the
way memory operates in nonamnesic people?
17.Imagine
what it would be like to recover from one of the forms of amnesia. Describe
your impressions of and reactions to your newly recovered memory abilities.
18.How
would you design an experiment to study the neural process of semantic memory
by functional MRI technique?
19.Patient
H.M. and others with damage to the medial temporal lobe develop amnesia. What
form of amnesia do they develop, and what information can they retain, and what
does this tell us about how memories are encoded in the brain?
Models of Memory
20.Describe
the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of information processing in detail.
21.Compare
information processing and level of processing models of memory.
22.How
does a connectionist (PDP) model handle memory?
23.What
is meant by level of recall, level of processing, and self-reference effect?
24.What
are the basic principles and models of information processing?
Intelligence Theories
25.Discuss
the salient features of two-factor theory.
26.Critically
appraise Spearman’s two-factor theory.
27.What
constructs has PASS theory borrowed from the fields of neuropsychology and
information processing?
28.Give
operational definitions of all four processes of PASS theory.
29.Are
the nine kinds of intelligence proposed by Gardner interrelated?
30.Evaluate
the importance of Gardner’s approach in the explanation of intelligence.
31.How
is Gardner’s theory different from Guilford’s construct-of-intellect theory?
32.Critically
evaluate Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence.
33.Explain
the three subtheories or facets of triarchic theory of intelligence.
34.How
is triarchic theory of intelligence different from the construct-of-intellect
theory?
Intelligence Testing
35.Describe
the history of intelligence tests and present an account of the concepts of IQ
and deviation IQ.
36.Explain
the types of intelligence tests with their relative advantages and
disadvantages.
37.Describe
the development of Simon-Binet tests. Also present a detailed account of SB5.
38.Provide
a historical account of development of variants of Wechsler Scales. Describe
the nature, structure and interpretation of WAIS-IV.
39.By
explaining theoretical grounds of Kaufman’s Scales present a complete
description of structure and interpretation of KABC-II and KAIT.
Creativity
40.Explain
how Investment and Confluence Theory approach creativity and present an account
of aspects of creative thinking.
41.Briefly
discuss the stages of creativity.
42.Describe
how creativity is related with intelligence and explain the threshold
hypothesis in this regard.
43.Give
an account of measurement of creativity.
44.Define
the problem solving behaviour and describe the terms related to problem
solving.
Language Acquisition
45.Compare
and contrast the behaviourism and innateness theories of language acquisition.
46.Nature
and nurture both influence the course of language development. Explain with
empirical evidence.
47.Illustrate
cognitive theory of language acquisition in detail.
48.Give
a sample of an utterance one might reasonably expect to hear from an
18-month-old child.
Language Development &
Comprehension
49.What
is the role of context and expectations in the interpretation of speech? How
has the influence of context been studied experimentally?
50.What
are several major features of language development?
51.Compare
and contrast the role of speech perception, syntax and semantics in the
development and understanding of language.
52.What
are the different processes involved in language comprehension?
53.The
exposition of Kintsch’s model is necessarily abstract and therefore difficult
to comprehend. Preserve in your reinstated searches! See if you can use it to
deal with a new example of text selected from another course.
54.What
factors are included in Kintsch’s model? How does the reader enter into this
model?
Multilingualism & Language
Disorders
55.What
can multilingualism tell us about language structures and processes?
56.What
are the advantages of being bilingual? Can you think of any disadvantages?
57.Compare
and contrast the speech errors made by individuals in different speech disorders.
58.Based
on the discussion of language disorders in this chapter, make a worksheet of
different kinds of language disorders and their symptoms and causes.
59.What
do brain disorders like Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias tell us about how a
healthy brain processes phonological, syntactic and semantic information?
Problem Solving & Thinking
60.What
is the role of various types of thinking involved in solving different kinds of
problems?
61.Describe
the four molar stages of problem solving.
62.Compare
and contrast the role of productive thinking and structurally blind thinking in
problem solving.
63.Emotional
states can affect many cognitive processes. What can be the effect of these
various emotional states on problem solving?
64.Compare
and contrast the generate-test, the means-ends and the backward search method
of problem solving.
65.Discuss
“thinking aloud” as a method of studying human problem solving.
66.Discuss
“other strategies” in problem solving. For example, abstraction, divide and
conquer, etc.
67.Critically
evaluate the utility of artificial intelligence in problem solving.
68.Compare
and contrast the general stages of problem solving with the stages of creative
problem solving.
Problem Solving Approaches
69.Explain
Wickelgren’s approach of general problem solving strategies.
70.Compare
the Gestalt approach of problem solving with information processing approach to
problem solving.
71.Newell’s
problem solving approach rests on a famous hypothesis in the literature of
problem solving. Name and explain this hypothesis.
72.Critically
discuss Newell’s approach to problem solving.
73.What
do you understand by the term “General Problem Solver”? Explain with examples.
74.What
is a mental set? Think of the few problem situations where you think your
mental set hampered effective problem solving.
75.Describe
some novice-expert differences in problem solving.
Critically
evaluate the concept of functional fixedness.
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